Contents (Long)
1. STRENGTH AND THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 1
Objectives
What is Strength?
The Origins of Strength Training Science
Pioneers of Strength Training
The Divergence of Training Philosophies
The Modern Era Dawns
The Fundamental Principle of Strength Training
Neural Changes with Training
Strength Deficit
1.1 Preliminary Issues 10
1.1.1 Resistance Training for Different Purposes 10
1.1.2 Factors limiting Strength Production 12
Trainability
Neuromuscular Efficiency
Biomechanical Efficiency
Psychological Factors
Pain and Fear of Pain
Injury and Fear of Injury
Fatigue
1.2 Fundamental Biomechanics of Strength 17
Biomechanics and Training
Initial Implications of Mechanics
Mass and Acceleration Issues
Muscle Tension and Training Stimulus
Application of Basic Biomechanics
1.3 A Philosophy of Physical Training 24
1.4 Specificity in Training 27
1.5 Strength and Fitness 32
Fitness, Preparedness and Work Capacity
1.6 The Nature of Strength 33
Determinants of Strength
Shock Training and Plyometrics
Strength and Connective Tissue
1.7 The Muscle Complex 35
1.7.1 The Structure of Muscle 35
Further Muscle Research
1.7.2 A Model of the Muscle Complex 40
Further Information on Collagenous Tissues
The Structure and Function of Ligaments and Tendons
Mechanical Loading of Collagenous Tissue
The Role of Stored Elastic Energy
The Influence of Exercise on Connective Tissue
A Modified Muscle Model
1.7.3 Implications of the Muscle Model for Flexibility 48
1.7.4 The Relationship between Stability and Mobility 48
1.8 Classification of Muscle Actions 49
1.9 Cocontraction and Ballistic Movement 50
1.10 Types of Muscle Contraction 51
Quasi-isometric Contraction
1.11 The Triphasic Nature of Muscle Action 54
1.12 Types of Muscle Fibre 55
Slow and Fast Twitch Muscle Fibres
Muscle Protein Isoforms
Muscle Fibres and Training
Further Aspects of Muscle Plasticity
The Implications of Ballistic Research
1.13 The Mechanism of Muscle Growth 65
The Effects of High versus Moderate Intensity Exercise
1.14 Neurophysiological Aspects of Exercise 69
1.15 Bioenergetics and the Energy Systems 73
1.15.1 The Energy Systems and Types of Activity 74
1.15.2 Energy Mechanisms 75
1.15.3 The Short-Term Energy System 76
1.15.4 The Intermediate Energy System 77
1.15.5 The Long-Term Energy System 78
1.15.6 Implications for Physical Conditioning 79
1.15.7 Hormonal Factors and Strength Training 82
1.16 Adaptation and the Training Effect 82
The Effects of Stress
1.16.1 The General Adaptation Syndrome 83
Adaptive Reconstruction versus Supercompensation
1.16.2 The Biochemistry of Adaptation in Sport 85
The Specificity of Biochemical Adaptation
The Sequence of Biochemical Changes during Training
1.16.3 General Theories of the Training Process 87
Single-Factor Model of Training
Two-Factor Model of Training
The Concept of Progressive Overload Training
1.16.4 A Model of Physical Fitness 91
2. SPORT SPECIFIC STRENGTH TRAINING 94
Special Strength Training
The Russian System of Classifying Athletes
The Early Stages of Strength Training
2.1 Schemes for Perfecting Movements 96
2.1.1 Increasing the Working-Effect of Movements 96
2.1.2 Perfecting the Motor Structure of Sports Movements 99
The Kinematic Pair
The Kinematic Chain
The Kinematic System
2.1.3 Perfecting the Kinesiological Pattern of Movements 104
2.2 Specialisation to Develop Sports Mastery 106
2.2.1 Specific Forms of Producing Muscular Strength 106
2.2.2 Sports Implications of Strength Indices 108
2.2.3 The Functional Topography of the Muscular System 109
2.2.4 Motor Specialisation in Developing Sports Mastery 111
Heterochronicity
Specialisation Processes
2.3 Characteristics of Physical Fitness 115
2.3.1 The Structure of Physical Fitness 115
2.3.2 The Interrelation between Motor Abilities 116
General and Partial Connections
Essential and Non-essential Connections
Positive and Negative Connections
Direct and Indirect Connections
2.3.3 The Structure of Motor Abilities 119
2.3.4 General Concepts of the Structure of Physical Fitness 119
3. FACTORS INFLUENCING STRENGTH PRODUCTION 124
3.1 The Regimes of Muscular Work 124
3.2 Qualitative Characteristics of Strength 128
3.2.1 Explosive Strength 128
Quickness and Reactive Ability
Speed, Speed-Strength and Quickness
3.2.2 Strength-Endurance 141
3.3 The Influence of External Conditions on Strength 143
3.3.1 The Influence of the Pre-working State of the Muscles 143
3.3.2 The Effect of the Load on Speed of Muscle Contraction 145
Contraction Speed and Strength in Acyclic Activity
Limitations of the Force-Velocity Relationship
Contraction Strength and Speed in Cyclic Activities
3.3.3 The Effect of Strength on Speed of Muscle Action 148
Speed-Strength and Strength-Speed
The Interrelation between Strength and Other Fitness Factors
3.3.4 The Relationship between Strength and Posture 151
3.3.4.1 Strength Variation with Postural Change 151
3.3.4.2 Strength, Safety and Pelvic Tilt 152
3.3.4.3 The Effect of Head Position on Strength 153
3.3.4.4 Strength, Symmetry and Limb Alignment 154
3.3.5 The Dependence of Strength on Bodymass 154
3.3.6 The Relationship between Strength and Height 158
3.3.7 The Relationship between Strength and Age 159
3.3.8 The Relationship between Strength and Gender 160
3.3.9 The Increase in Human Strength over Time 160
3.4 Factors increasing the Working Effect of Strength 162
3.4.1 The Warm-up and Pre-Activity Preparation 162
3.4.2 The After-effect of Muscle Activity 163
3.4.3 Additional Movement 165
3.4.4 Preparatory Movement 166
3.4.5 Coordination in Muscular Work 166
3.4.6 Efficiency of Energy Expenditure 166
3.4.7 Emotion and other Psychological Factors 169
3.4.8 The Effect of Cold Application 170
3.4.9 Breathing and Strength Production 171
3.4.10 Strength Development and Proprioception 172
3.5 Flexibility and Sporting Performance 173
3.5.1 A Definition of Flexibility 173
3.5.2 The Effects of Stretching 175
3.5.3 The Neuromuscular Component of Flexibility 175
3.5.4 Components of Joint Flexibility 178
3.5.5 Parameters of Flexibility 178
3.5.6 Soft Tissue Biomechanics and Flexibility 179
Flexibility, Stability and Muscle Activity
3.5.7 The Influence of Exercise on Connective Tissue 181
3.5.8 Stretching Techniques 182
The Use of Ballistic Stretching
3.5.9 Low Flexibility versus Non-Functional Muscle Tension 186
3.6 The Stretching Matrix System 187
Is Stretching Always Necessary?
3.7 The Movement Matrix System 192
Limitations of Anatomical Movement Analysis
4. THE MEANS OF SPECIAL STRENGTH TRAINING 200
4.1 The Problem of Training Means 200
4.1.1 Characteristics of Strength Increase 200
4.1.2 The Effect of Strength Training Means 203
Algebraic Relations and Training
Steps Towards Structuring the Training Process
4.2 Different Means of Strength Development 206
4.2.1 Electrostimulation 207
4.2.1.1 The Physiological Effects of Electrostimulation 208
4.2.1.2 Reasons for Conflicting Research 208
4.2.1.3 Clinical Applications of Electrostimulation 209
4.2.1.4 Further Research Findings 212
4.2.1.5 An Integrated Theory of Electrostimulation 213
4.2.1.6 The Use of Electrostimulation in Training 213
The Integrated Use of Electrostimulation
Sports Functional Electrostimulation
Overtraining and Restoration
Concluding Remarks
4.2.2 Resistance and Strength Training 215
4.2.3 Kinetic Energy and Strength Processes 219
4.2.4 Isometric Training 222
Isometric Training and Angular Specificity
Isometric Endurance
Recovery after Isometric Activity
Other Aspects of Isometric Activity
Loadless Training
4.2.5 Eccentric Training 229
4.2.6 Isokinetic and Other Training Means 230
4.2.6.1 The Isokinetic Training Method 230
4.2.6.2 Limitations of the Isokinetic Method 232
Fundamental Biomechanics of Isokinetic Devices
Recommended Strength Ratios
Functional Anatomy
Muscle Physiology
The Importance of Specificity
Concluding Remarks
4.2.6.3 Static-Dynamic Methods 235
4.2.6.4 Choice of Muscle Training Regimes 235
4.2.7 The Use Of Training Machines 236
4.2.7.1 Functional Resistance Machines 236
4.2.7.2 Non-Functional Resistance Machines 237
4.2.7.3 Machines and the Variable Resistance Philosophy 238
4.2.7.4 The Training Safety of Machines 238
4.2.7.5 The Efficiency of Machine Training 238
4.2.8 The Concept of Symmetric Training 239
4.2.9 The Concept of Muscle Isolation 240
4.3 Dynamic Correspondence as a Means of Strength Training 240
4.3.1 The Amplitude and Direction of Movement 241
Parachute Resistance Training
4.3.2 The Accentuated Region of Force Production 243
4.3.3 The Dynamics of the Effort 244
4.3.4 The Rate and Time of Maximal Force Production 245
4.3.5 The Regime of Muscular Work 246
4.3.6 Correspondence of Training Means to the Sports Movements 246
4.4 Strength Training and General Endurance 247
Oxidative Capacity and Muscular Endurance
Strength Training and General Endurance
The Process of Functional Specialisation
Factor Analysis
5. THE METHODS OF SPECIAL STRENGTH TRAINING 253
5.1 The Problem of Methods 253
Some Implications of the Laws of Dynamics
5.2 General Principles of Special Strength Training 255
5.2.1 The Development of Maximum Strength 256
The Repetitive Effort Method
The Brief Maximal Tension Method
5.2.2 Autoregulating Progressive Resistance Exercise (APRE) 259
5.2.3 The Development of Speed-Strength 262
5.2.4 The Development of Explosive Strength and Reactive Ability 265
The Plyometric Method
Plyometrics as a Discrete Training System
Plyometric Training and Safety
The Fundamental Theory of Plyometrics
The Prescription of Plyometric Exercise
Asymmetric Plyometrics
Non-Impact Plyometrics
Non-Impact Plyometrics in Sports Training
Resisted and Water Plyometric Training
Analysis of Popular Texts on Plyometrics
Plyometrics and the Brain
Various Shock Methods
5.2.5 The Development of Strength-Endurance 283
5.3 Application of Special Strength Training Means 285
5.3.1 Interaction between Different Training Means 289
5.3.2 A Sequential System of Training Means 289
5.3.3 The Conjugate Sequence System of Training Means 290
5.4 The Principal Aims of Special Strength Training 292
5.4.1 Converging the Partial Effects of Strength Training Means 292
5.4.2 Acceleration of Specific Adaptation 294
5.4.3 Specific Correspondence of The Training Effect 294
5.4.4 Maintaining the Strength Training Effect 295
5.5 Cross Training in Sport 296
5.6 Circuit Training 298
6. ORGANISATION OF TRAINING 311
6.1 The Development of Training Organisation 311
Ways of Organising Training
6.2 Periodisation as a Form of Organisation 314
Definitions and Fundamental Concepts
Preparatory Phases of Training
Further Phases and Principles
Acquisition and Stabilisation of Technical Skills
6.2.1 Types of Periodisation 317
6.2.2 Calculation of the Parameters of Periodisation 321
Drawing up the Periodisation Scheme
Cybernetic Programming and Periodisation
Training Intensity, Heart Rate and Other Tests
Non Technological Testing
6.2.3 The Relationship between Intensity and Volume 330
6.3 The Periodisation Controversy 331
Chronobiology and Periodisation
6.4 Training as an Objective of Management 334
6.5 Prerequisites for Organising Training 336
6.6 Basic Management Theory 337
6.6.1 Human Needs and Motivation 337
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Other Theories of Needs
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
6.6.2 Management Models 340
The Traditional Model
The Managerial Grid
Situational Leadership
The Leadership Continuum
Decision Making and Problem Solving
6.7 Classification of Sports 344
6.8 Characteristics of the Training Process 344
6.8.1 Adaptation to Intense Muscular Work 344
6.8.2 Structural-Functional Specialisation in Training 348
6.8.3 The Structure of Special Physical Preparedness 350
6.9 Preparedness and the Training Load 350
6.9.1 The Training Load and its Effect 350
6.9.2 Factors determining the Training Effect 353
6.9.3 The Contents of the Loading 354
Specificity of the Load
Training Potential of the Loading
6.9.4 The Volume of the Training Load 356
6.9.5 The Organisation of Training Loads 357
6.10 The Long-Term Delayed Training Effect 360
The Delayed Training Effect and Long Duration Work
Concluding Comments
6.11 The Dynamics of Training in the Annual Cycle 364
6.12 Principles of Programming and Organising Training 366
6.12.1 Forms of Constructing Training 366
6.12.2 Organisational Aspects of Structuring Training 367
Complex Training
Unidirectional Training
Concentrated Loading
Problems with Concentrated Loading
The Use of Concentrated Loading
Use of the Conjugate Sequence System
6.12.3 Constructing Training by Functional Indicators 372
6.13 Primary Aims in Programming Training 376
6.14 Models for Structuring Annual Training 377
Examples of Descriptive Modelling
The Composition of the Concentrated Loading Volume
6.14.1 A Model for Sports requiring Explosive Strength 381
6.14.2 A Model for Medium Duration Endurance Sports 382
6.14.3 A Model for Long Duration Endurance Sports 383
6.14.4 A Model for Sports requiring Tricyclic Periodisation 384
More Advanced Use of Concentrated Loading
6.14.5 Practical Principles of Programming 387
6.15 A Sequence for Programming Annual Training 388
6.16 Managing the Training Process 389
6.17 The Future of Programming Training 390
7. STRENGTH TRAINING METHODS 391
7.1 Bodybuilding and Other Strength Training Methods 392
Maximal Methods
Supramaximal Methods
Circa-maximal Methods
Submaximal Methods
Reactive Methods
Miscellaneous Methods
Methods for Overcoming Barriers
Concluding Remarks
7.2 PNF as a Training System 401
7.2.1 Definition and Scope of PNF 402
7.2.2 Relationship of PNF to Physical Conditioning 403
7.2.3 The Fundamentals of PNF 403
7.2.3.1 The Principles of PNF 404
7.2.3.2 Procedures of PNF 404
7.2.3.3 Patterns of PNF 405
7.2.3.4 Positions and Postures of PNF 408
7.2.3.5 Pacing in PNF 408
7.2.4 Modifications to PNF 408
Pattern Deviations and Safety Factors
7.2.5 Functional Neuromuscular Conditioning 409
7.3 Combinations of Resistance Methods 409
Scientific Analysis of Different Combinations 410
Accelerated Powermetrics 413
7.4 Muscle Training 414
7.4.1 A Summary of Movements of the Joints 414
7.4.2 Examination of Some Joint Actions 416
7.5 Use of the Strength Training Compendium 416
7.6 Training for Hypertrophy? 417
8. DESIGNING SPORT SPECIFIC STRENGTH PROGRAMMES 419
8.1 Preliminary Considerations 419
8.2 Needs Analysis and Sports Modelling 421
Selection of Training Needs
General Fitness Issues
Injuries
Training to Avoid Injury
Training of the Soft Tissues
8.3 The Training Programme 426
Components of the Training Programme
List of Popular Resistance Exercises
8.4 Classification of Exercises for Sports Training 430
8.4.1 Principles of Exercise Classification 430
8.4.2 Classification of Weightlifting Exercises 431
Categorisation of Fundamental and Additional Exercises
General Preparatory Exercises in Weightlifting
List of Exercises in Weightlifting Training
Examples of Powerlifting Exercises
Examples of Hybrid Lifting Exercises
8.5 Overtraining 438
8.6 Restoration and Stress Management 441
Stress and Restorative Measures
Application of Restorative Measures
Restorative Means
Massage Methods
Massage Variables
Further Fundamentals of Sports Recovery
Complexes and Periodisation in Restoration
Research into Restoration Methods
Sports Science and Stress Management
8.7 The Use Of Testing 453
The Vertical Jumping Test
Muscle Strength Ratios
Work Capacity and Functional Pressure Tests
8.8 Principles of Safety in Strength Training 457
Injury Prevention by Imperfection Training
8.9 Safety and Training Apparel 459
8.9.1 Lifting, Belts and Breathing 459
8.9.2 Shoes and Safety 460
Shoe Design
Shoes in the Weights Facility
8.10 Safety and Machine Training 461
8.11 Protection by the Muscles 464
8.12 Towards the Future 465
Non-Physical Factors
Lessons from Modern Physics
Changes of State
Fuzzy Fitness
Application of New Methods
Innovations in Testing
Kinaesthetic Manipulation and Education
Advances in Methods of Coaching
Concluding Remarks
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 472
INDEX 485
